Tetraose steroidal glycoalkaloids from potato provide resistance against Alternaria solani and Colorado potato beetle.

Plants with innate disease and pest resistance can contribute to more sustainable agriculture. Natural defence compounds produced by plants have the potential to provide a general protective effect against pathogens and pests, but they are not a primary target in resistance breeding. Here, we identified a wild relative of potato, Solanum commersonii, that provides us with unique insight in the role of glycoalkaloids in plant immunity. We cloned two atypical resistance genes that provide resistance to Alternaria solani and Colorado potato beetle through the production of tetraose steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGA). Moreover, we provide in vitro evidence to show that these compounds have potential against a range of different (potato pathogenic) fungi. This research links structural variation in SGAs to resistance against potato diseases and pests. Further research on the biosynthesis of plant defence compounds in different tissues, their toxicity, and the mechanisms for detoxification, can aid the effective use of such compounds to improve sustainability of our food production.

Farmers often rely on pesticides to protect their crops from disease and pests. However, these chemicals are harmful to the environment and more sustainable strategies are needed. This is particularly true for a disease known as the early blight of potato, which is primarily treated using fungicides that stop the fungal pathogen responsible for the infection (Alternaria solani) from growing. An alternative approach is to harness the natural defence systems that plants already have in place to protect themselves. Like humans, plants have an immune system which can detect and destroy specific pathogens. On top of this, they release defence compounds that are generally toxic to pests and microbes, stopping them from infiltrating and causing an infection. In 2021, a group of researchers discovered a wild relative of the potato, known as Solanum commersonii, with strong resistance to early blight disease. Here, Wolters et al. ­ including some of the researchers involved in the 2021 study ­ set out to find how this plant defends itself from the fungus A. solani. The team found that two closely linked genes are responsible for the resistant behaviour of S. commersonii, which both encode enzymes known as glycosyltransferases. Further experiments revealed that the enzymes protect S. commersonii from early blight disease by modifying steroidal glycoalkaloids, typical defence compounds found in potato and other plants from the same family. The glycosyltransferases alter glycoalkaloids in S. commersonii by adding a sugar group to a specific part of the compound called glycone. Wolters et al. found that the glycoalkaloids from S. commersonii were able to slow the growth of other fungal pathogens that harm potatoes when tested in the laboratory. They also made plants resistant to another common destroyer of crops, the Colorado potato beetle. These findings could help farmers breed potatoes and other crops that are more resistant to early blight disease and Colorado potato beetle, as well as potentially other fungi and pests. However, further experiments are needed to investigate how these glycone-modified glycoalkaloids affect humans, and how variants of glycoalkaloids are produced and degraded in different parts of the plants. Acquiring this knowledge will help to employ these defence compounds in a safe and effective manner.

The association between the susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea and the levels of volatile and non-volatile metabolites in red ripe strawberry genotypes.

The relations between physical and chemical characteristics (e.g., color, firmness, volatile and non-volatile metabolites) of red ripe strawberry fruit and the natural spoilage caused by Botrytis cinerea were investigated. The spoilage rates differed between genotypes, and this was highly correlated over two successive years. Among seventeen genotypes, a more intense red coloration of the fruit skin was associated with a lower spoilage rate (r = -0.63). Additionally, weakly negative correlations were found between the levels of anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, malic acid and spoilage rates. No clear correlations were found between spoilage rates and soluble sugars, most volatiles, firmness and dry weight percentage. High levels of two volatile compounds, ethyl butanoate (r = 0.55) and 1-hexanol (r = 0.61), were correlated to high spoilage rates. These characteristics may assist strawberry breeders in selecting for genotypes with reduced susceptibility to B. cinerea.

Low Salicylic Acid Level Improves Pollen Development Under Long-Term Mild Heat Conditions in Tomato.

Exposure to high temperatures leads to failure in pollen development, which may have significant implications for food security with ongoing climate change. We hypothesized that the stress response-associated hormone salicylic acid (SA) affects pollen tolerance to long-term mild heat (LTMH) (≥14 days exposure to day-/nighttime temperature of 30-34/24-28°C, depending on the genotype), either positively, by inducing acclimation, or negatively, by reducing investment in reproductive development. Here, we investigated these hypotheses assessing the pollen thermotolerance of a 35S:nahG tomato line, which has low SA levels. We found that reducing the SA level resulted in increased pollen viability of plants grown in LTMH and further characterized this line by transcriptome, carbohydrate, and hormone analyses. Low expression of JAZ genes in 35S:nahG and LTMH hypersensitivity of low-jasmonic acid (JA) genotypes together suggest that the increased pollen thermotolerance in the low-SA line involves enhanced JA signal in developing anthers in LTMH. These findings have potential application in the development of more thermotolerant crops.

The genetic and functional analysis of flavor in commercial tomato: the FLORAL4 gene underlies a QTL for floral aroma volatiles in tomato fruit.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) has become a popular model for genetic studies of fruit flavor in the last two decades. In this article we present a study of tomato fruit flavor, including an analysis of the genetic, metabolic and sensorial variation of a collection of contemporary commercial glasshouse tomato cultivars, followed by a validation of the associations found by quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis of representative biparental segregating populations. This led to the identification of the major sensorial and chemical components determining fruit flavor variation and detection of the underlying QTLs. The high representation of QTL haplotypes in the breeders' germplasm suggests that there is great potential for applying these QTLs in current breeding programs aimed at improving tomato flavor. A QTL on chromosome 4 was found to affect the levels of the phenylalanine-derived volatiles (PHEVs) 2-phenylethanol, phenylacetaldehyde and 1-nitro-2-phenylethane. Fruits of near-isogenic lines contrasting for this locus and in the composition of PHEVs significantly differed in the perception of fruity and rose-hip-like aroma. The PHEV locus was fine mapped, which allowed for the identification of FLORAL4 as a candidate gene for PHEV regulation. Using a gene-editing-based (CRISPR-CAS9) reverse-genetics approach, FLORAL4 was demonstrated to be the key factor in this QTL affecting PHEV accumulation in tomato fruit.

The effect of isolation methods of tomato pollen on the results of metabolic profiling.

INTRODUCTION: Untargeted metabolomics is a powerful tool to detect hundreds of metabolites within a given tissue and to compare the metabolite composition of samples in a comprehensive manner. However, with regard to pollen research such comprehensive metabolomics approaches are yet not well developed. To enable isolation of pollen that is tightly enclosed within the anthers of the flower, such as immature pollen, the current pollen isolation protocols require the use of a watery solution. These protocols raise a number of concerns for their suitability in metabolomics analyses, in view of possible metabolic activities in the pollen and contamination with anther metabolites. OBJECTIVES: We assessed the effect of different sample preparation procedures currently used for pollen isolation for their suitability to perform metabolomics of tomato pollen. METHODS: Pollen were isolated using different methods and the metabolic profiles were analysed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). RESULTS: Our results demonstrated that pollen isolation in a watery solution led to (i) rehydration of the pollen grains, inducing marked metabolic changes in flavonoids, phenylpropanoids and amino acids and thus resulting in a metabolite profile that did not reflect the one of mature dry pollen, (ii) hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose during subsequent metabolite extraction, unless the isolated and rehydrated pollen were lyophilized prior to extraction, and (iii) contamination with anther-specific metabolites, such as alkaloids, thus compromising the metabolic purity of the pollen fraction. CONCLUSION: We conclude that the current practices used to isolate pollen are suboptimal for metabolomics analyses and provide recommendations on how to improve the pollen isolation protocol, in order to obtain the most reliable metabolic profile from pollen tissue.

Untargeted metabolomic analysis of tomato pollen development and heat stress response.

KEY MESSAGE: Pollen development metabolomics. Developing pollen is among the plant structures most sensitive to high temperatures, and a decrease in pollen viability is often associated with an alteration of metabolite content. Most of the metabolic studies of pollen have focused on a specific group of compounds, which limits the identification of physiologically important metabolites. To get a better insight into pollen development and the pollen heat stress response, we used a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry platform to detect secondary metabolites in pollen of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) at three developmental stages under control conditions and after a short heat stress at 38 °C. Under control conditions, the young microspores accumulated a large amount of alkaloids and polyamines, whereas the mature pollen strongly accumulated flavonoids. The heat stress treatment led to accumulation of flavonoids in the microspore. The biological role of the detected metabolites is discussed. This study provides the first untargeted metabolomic analysis of developing pollen under a changing environment that can serve as reference for further studies.

Solanum lycopersicum AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 9 regulates cell division activity during early tomato fruit development.

The transformation of the ovary into a fruit after successful completion of pollination and fertilization has been associated with many changes at transcriptomic level. These changes are part of a dynamic and complex regulatory network that is controlled by phytohormones, with a major role for auxin. One of the auxin-related genes differentially expressed upon fruit set and early fruit development in tomato is Solanum lycopersicum AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 9 (SlARF9). Here, the functional analysis of this ARF is described. SlARF9 expression was found to be auxin-responsive and SlARF9 mRNA levels were high in the ovules, placenta, and pericarp of pollinated ovaries, but also in other plant tissues with high cell division activity, such as the axillary meristems and root meristems. Transgenic plants with increased SlARF9 mRNA levels formed fruits that were smaller than wild-type fruits because of reduced cell division activity, whereas transgenic lines in which SlARF9 mRNA levels were reduced showed the opposite phenotype. The expression analysis, together with the phenotype of the transgenic lines, suggests that, in tomato, ARF9 negatively controls cell division during early fruit development.

The expanded tomato fruit volatile landscape.

The present review aims to synthesize our present knowledge about the mechanisms implied in the biosynthesis of volatile compounds in the ripe tomato fruit, which have a key role in tomato flavour. The difficulties in identifiying not only genes or genomic regions but also individual target compounds for plant breeding are addressed. Ample variability in the levels of almost any volatile compound exists, not only in the populations derived from interspecific crosses but also in heirloom varieties and even in commercial hybrids. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for all tomato aroma volatiles have been identified in collections derived from both intraspecific and interspecific crosses with different wild tomato species and they (i) fail to co-localize with structural genes in the volatile biosynthetic pathways and (ii) reveal very little coincidence in the genomic regions characterized, indicating that there is ample opportunity to reinforce the levels of the volatiles of interest. Some of the identified genes may be useful as markers or as biotechnological tools to enhance tomato aroma. Current knowledge about the major volatile biosynthetic pathways in the fruit is summarized. Finally, and based on recent reports, it is stressed that conjugation to other metabolites such as sugars seems to play a key role in the modulation of volatile release, at least in some metabolic pathways.

Non-smoky glycosyltransferase1 prevents the release of smoky aroma from tomato fruit.

Phenylpropanoid volatiles are responsible for the key tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum) aroma attribute termed "smoky." Release of these volatiles from their glycosylated precursors, rather than their biosynthesis, is the major determinant of smoky aroma in cultivated tomato. using a combinatorial omics approach, we identified the non-smoky glycosyltransferase1 (NSGT1) gene. Expression of NSGT1 is induced during fruit ripening, and the encoded enzyme converts the cleavable diglycosides of the smoky-related phenylpropanoid volatiles into noncleavable triglycosides, thereby preventing their deglycosylation and release from tomato fruit upon tissue disruption. In an nsgt1/nsgt1 background, further glycosylation of phenylpropanoid volatile diglycosides does not occur, thereby enabling their cleavage and the release of corresponding volatiles. Using reverse genetics approaches, the NSGT1-mediated glycosylation was shown to be the molecular mechanism underlying the major quantitative trait locus for smoky aroma. Sensory trials with transgenic fruits, in which the inactive nsgt1 was complemented with the functional NSGT1, showed a significant and perceivable reduction in smoky aroma. NSGT1 may be used in a precision breeding strategy toward development of tomato fruits with distinct flavor phenotypes.

The tomato FRUITFULL homologs TDR4/FUL1 and MBP7/FUL2 regulate ethylene-independent aspects of fruit ripening.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) contains two close homologs of the Arabidopsis thaliana MADS domain transcription factor FRUITFULL (FUL), FUL1 (previously called TDR4) and FUL2 (previously MBP7). Both proteins interact with the ripening regulator RIPENING INHIBITOR (RIN) and are expressed during fruit ripening. To elucidate their function in tomato, we characterized single and double FUL1 and FUL2 knockdown lines. Whereas the single lines only showed very mild alterations in fruit pigmentation, the double silenced lines exhibited an orange-ripe fruit phenotype due to highly reduced lycopene levels, suggesting that FUL1 and FUL2 have a redundant function in fruit ripening. More detailed analyses of the phenotype, transcriptome, and metabolome of the fruits silenced for both FUL1 and FUL2 suggest that the genes are involved in cell wall modification, the production of cuticle components and volatiles, and glutamic acid (Glu) accumulation. Glu is responsible for the characteristic umami taste of the present-day cultivated tomato fruit. In contrast with previously identified ripening regulators, FUL1 and FUL2 do not regulate ethylene biosynthesis but influence ripening in an ethylene-independent manner. Our data combined with those of others suggest that FUL1/2 and TOMATO AGAMOUS-LIKE1 regulate different subsets of the known RIN targets, probably in a protein complex with the latter.

The mQTL hotspot on linkage group 16 for phenolic compounds in apple fruits is probably the result of a leucoanthocyanidin reductase gene at that locus.

BACKGROUND: Our previous study on ripe apples from a progeny of a cross between the apple cultivars 'Prima' and 'Fiesta' showed a hotspot of mQTLs for phenolic compounds at the top of LG16, both in peel and in flesh tissues. In order to find the underlying gene(s) of this mQTL hotspot, we investigated the expression profiles of structural and putative transcription factor genes of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways during different stages of fruit development in progeny genotypes. RESULTS: Only the structural gene leucoanthocyanidin reductase (MdLAR1) showed a significant correlation between transcript abundance and content of metabolites that mapped on the mQTL hotspot. This gene is located on LG16 in the mQTL hotspot. Progeny that had inherited one or two copies of the dominant MdLAR1 alleles (Mm, MM) showed a 4.4- and 11.8-fold higher expression level of MdLAR1 respectively, compared to the progeny that had inherited the recessive alleles (mm). This higher expression was associated with a four-fold increase of procyanidin dimer II as one representative metabolite that mapped in the mQTL hotspot. Although expression level of several structural genes were correlated with expression of other structural genes and with some MYB and bHLH transcription factor genes, only expression of MdLAR1 was correlated with metabolites that mapped at the mQTL hotspot. MdLAR1 is the only candidate gene that can explain the mQTL for procyanidins and flavan-3-ols. However, mQTLs for other phenylpropanoids such as phenolic esters, dihydrochalcones and flavonols, that appear to map at the same locus, have so far not been considered to be dependent on LAR, as their biosynthesis does not involve LAR activity. An explanation for this phenomenon is discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Transcript abundances and genomic positions indicate that the mQTL hotspot for phenolic compounds at the top of LG16 is controlled by the MdLAR1 gene. The dominant allele of the MdLAR1 gene, causing increased content of metabolites that are potentially health beneficial, could be used in marker assisted selection of current apple breeding programs and for cisgenesis.

A role for differential glycoconjugation in the emission of phenylpropanoid volatiles from tomato fruit discovered using a metabolic data fusion approach.

A role for differential glycoconjugation in the emission of phenylpropanoid volatiles from ripening tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum) upon fruit tissue disruption has been discovered in this study. Application of a multiinstrumental analytical platform for metabolic profiling of fruits from a diverse collection of tomato cultivars revealed that emission of three discriminatory phenylpropanoid volatiles, namely methyl salicylate, guaiacol, and eugenol, took place upon disruption of fruit tissue through cleavage of the corresponding glycoconjugates, identified putatively as hexose-pentosides. However, in certain genotypes, phenylpropanoid volatile emission was arrested due to the corresponding hexose-pentoside precursors having been converted into glycoconjugate species of a higher complexity: dihexose-pentosides and malonyl-dihexose-pentosides. This glycoside conversion was established to occur in tomato fruit during the later phases of fruit ripening and has consequently led to the inability of red fruits of these genotypes to emit key phenylpropanoid volatiles upon fruit tissue disruption. This principle of volatile emission regulation can pave the way to new strategies for controlling tomato fruit flavor and taste.

RNA interference silencing of chalcone synthase, the first step in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway, leads to parthenocarpic tomato fruits.

Parthenocarpy, the formation of seedless fruits in the absence of functional fertilization, is a desirable trait for several important crop plants, including tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Seedless fruits can be of great value for consumers, the processing industry, and breeding companies. In this article, we propose a novel strategy to obtain parthenocarpic tomatoes by down-regulation of the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway using RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated suppression of chalcone synthase (CHS), the first gene in the flavonoid pathway. In CHS RNAi plants, total flavonoid levels, transcript levels of both Chs1 and Chs2, as well as CHS enzyme activity were reduced by up to a few percent of the corresponding wild-type values. Surprisingly, all strong Chs-silenced tomato lines developed parthenocarpic fruits. Although a relation between flavonoids and parthenocarpic fruit development has never been described, it is well known that flavonoids are essential for pollen development and pollen tube growth and, hence, play an essential role in plant reproduction. The observed parthenocarpic fruit development appeared to be pollination dependent, and Chs RNAi fruits displayed impaired pollen tube growth. Our results lead to novel insight in the mechanisms underlying parthenocarpic fruit development. The potential of this technology for applications in plant breeding and biotechnology will be discussed.

Metabolomic profiling of natural volatiles: headspace trapping: GC-MS.

Plants are a fabulously rich source of naturally volatile metabolites, which are derived from a range of contrasting biochemical pathways (e.g., mono-, di-, and sesquiterpenoids, benzoates, alcohols, esters). Such volatiles may immediately be released from the plant or they may be stored, e.g., in glycosylated form for release later "on demand." Certain roles for these molecules have already been determined in that they can function as attractants (e.g., to pollinators, seed dispersers, and others) or as protectants (repellants, pathogen inhibitors, and so on). The flavor and fragrance of plant materials to humans and other animals are also, to a great extent, determined by natural volatiles. Other more sophisticated roles have also been elucidated where plant volatiles have been shown to be involved either as signal molecules to attract the predators of damaging herbivorous insects or potentially even as signal molecules warning other plants of imminent danger. As such, detailed knowledge of these components can be valuable in relation to breeding crop varieties for enhanced product quality or for achieving improved resistance to pathogens and insects. Furthermore, knowledge of the metabolites can result in a corresponding knowledge of the genes responsible for their synthesis and this can lead to dedicated strategies for their in vitro production through, e.g., reverse genetics in heterologous microbial expression systems in fermentors for the production of high-value fine chemicals. Various analytical techniques based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry have been devised for the analysis of this complex group of metabolites. Two of these key methods are detailed in this chapter.